Spain Net International Investment Position
1992 - 2024 | Quarterly | USD mn | CEIC Data
Key information about Spain Net International Investment Position
- Spain Net International Investment Position reached -855.403 USD bn in Sep 2024, compared with -771.920 USD bn in the previous quarter.
- Spain Net International Investment Position: USD mn data is updated quarterly, available from Dec 1992 to Sep 2024.
- The data reached an all-time high of -101.488 USD bn in Dec 1992 and a record low of -1,516.309 USD bn in Sep 2009.
CEIC converts quarterly Net International Investment Position into USD. Banco de España provides Net International Investment Position in EUR. The Federal Reserve Board period end market exchange rate is used for currency conversions.
View Spain's Net International Investment Position from Dec 1992 to Sep 2024 in the chart:
What was Spain's Net International Investment Position in Sep 2024?
Spain Net International Investment Position reached -855.403 USD bn in Sep 2024, compared with -771.920 USD bn in the previous quarter. See the table below for more data.
| Last | Previous | Min | Max | Unit | Frequency | Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -855,403.266 Sep 2024 | -771,920.351 Jun 2024 | -1,516,308.792 Sep 2009 | -101,487.931 Dec 1992 | USD mn | quarterly | Dec 1992 - Sep 2024 |
Net International Investment Position by Country Comparison
| country/region | Last | Frequency | Range |
|---|---|---|---|
| Albania (USD mn) | -11,416.526 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2014 - Sep 2024 |
| Algeria (USD mn) | 51,830.760 2023 | yearly | 2011 - 2023 |
| Argentina (USD mn) | 41,868.043 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2016 - Sep 2024 |
| Armenia (USD mn) | -12,221.742 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Australia (USD mn) | -403,983.172 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Sep 1988 - Dec 2024 |
| Austria (USD mn) | 115,900.198 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Bahrain (USD mn) | 28,112.827 2023 | yearly | 1989 - 2023 |
| Bangladesh (USD mn) | -90,244.166 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2005 - Sep 2024 |
| Belarus (USD mn) | -19,219.785 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1996 - Sep 2024 |
| Belgium (USD mn) | 389,048.544 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2005 - Sep 2024 |
| Bolivia (USD mn) | -11,223.917 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2004 - Sep 2024 |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina (USD mn) | -6,344.140 2023 | yearly | 2005 - 2023 |
| Botswana (USD mn) | 5,613.990 2023 | yearly | 1996 - 2023 |
| Brazil (USD mn) | -972,358.334 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2001 - Sep 2024 |
| Bulgaria (USD mn) | -5,318.461 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2007 - Sep 2024 |
| Cambodia (USD mn) | -35,886.965 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2006 - Sep 2024 |
| Canada (USD mn) | 1,385,131.250 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1990 - Dec 2024 |
| Chile (USD mn) | -58,902.313 Jun 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2007 - Jun 2024 |
| China (USD mn) | 3,181,703.188 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2011 - Sep 2024 |
| Colombia (USD mn) | -186,634.638 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2000 - Dec 2024 |
| Croatia (USD mn) | -18,647.917 Dec 2022 | quarterly | Mar 2001 - Dec 2022 |
| Cyprus (USD mn) | -30,970.998 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2008 - Sep 2024 |
| Czech Republic (USD mn) | -29,075.288 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1993 - Sep 2024 |
| Denmark (USD mn) | 243,075.992 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2005 - Sep 2024 |
| Ecuador (USD) | -18,707,079,496.587 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2016 - Sep 2024 |
| Egypt (USD mn) | -287,071.800 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2013 - Sep 2024 |
| Estonia (USD mn) | -5,730.090 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1996 - Sep 2024 |
| European Union (USD mn) | 1,239,534.096 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Finland (USD mn) | 60,199.717 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1975 - Sep 2024 |
| France (USD mn) | -797,430.320 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Georgia (USD mn) | -29,787.715 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Germany (USD mn) | 3,690,638.874 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1957 - Sep 2024 |
| Ghana (USD mn) | -23,941.736 2023 | yearly | 2006 - 2023 |
| Greece (USD mn) | -339,091.640 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2003 - Sep 2024 |
| Hong Kong SAR, China (USD mn) | 2,066,472.140 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2010 - Sep 2024 |
| Hungary (USD mn) | -90,047.654 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1990 - Sep 2024 |
| Iceland (USD mn) | 14,203.698 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1989 - Dec 2024 |
| India (USD mn) | -348,500.976 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2006 - Sep 2024 |
| Indonesia (USD mn) | -245,284.868 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2014 - Dec 2024 |
| Ireland (USD mn) | -445,576.393 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2011 - Dec 2024 |
| Israel (USD mn) | 219,553.500 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1989 - Dec 2024 |
| Italy (USD mn) | 295,584.364 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1998 - Sep 2024 |
| Ivory Coast (USD mn) | -26,716.101 2021 | yearly | 1998 - 2021 |
| Japan (USD mn) | 3,477,917.258 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Jun 2010 - Dec 2024 |
| Jordan (USD mn) | -50,170.258 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2010 - Sep 2024 |
| Kazakhstan (USD mn) | -49,796.997 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1998 - Sep 2024 |
| South Korea (USD mn) | 1,102,264.500 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1994 - Dec 2024 |
| Kosovo (USD mn) | -2,034.505 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2011 - Sep 2024 |
| Kuwait (USD mn) | 113,840.261 2023 | yearly | 2001 - 2023 |
| Kyrgyzstan (USD mn) | -7,550.326 2023 | yearly | 1993 - 2023 |
| Latvia (USD mn) | -8,543.715 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1996 - Dec 2024 |
| Lithuania (USD mn) | 1,133.458 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Luxembourg (USD mn) | 34,398.299 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2002 - Sep 2024 |
| North Macedonia (USD mn) | -9,533.892 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2006 - Sep 2024 |
| Malawi (USD mn) | -6,956.681 2022 | yearly | 2002 - 2022 |
| Malaysia (USD mn) | -1,489.713 2024 | yearly | 2001 - 2024 |
| Malta (USD mn) | 24,215.866 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2004 - Sep 2024 |
| Mauritius (USD mn) | 16,382.963 2020 | yearly | 1999 - 2020 |
| Mexico (USD mn) | -636,394.740 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2009 - Sep 2024 |
| Moldova (USD mn) | -5,785.970 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1998 - Sep 2024 |
| Mongolia (USD mn) | -43,390.758 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2010 - Dec 2024 |
| Morocco (USD mn) | -79,730.918 2023 | yearly | 2002 - 2023 |
| Mozambique (USD mn) | -71,143.239 2024 | yearly | 2005 - 2024 |
| Myanmar (USD mn) | -35,240.992 Sep 2020 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2020 |
| Nepal (USD mn) | 1,716.243 Jun 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2012 - Jun 2024 |
| Netherlands (USD mn) | 678,685.918 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Jun 2003 - Sep 2024 |
| New Zealand (USD mn) | -132,742.997 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Jun 2000 - Sep 2024 |
| Nigeria (USD mn) | -86,263.760 2023 | yearly | 2005 - 2023 |
| Norway (USD mn) | 1,732,511.721 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2012 - Dec 2024 |
| Pakistan (USD mn) | -130,551.194 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2009 - Sep 2024 |
| Palestinian Territory (USD mn) | 6,185.000 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2013 - Sep 2024 |
| Panama (USD mn) | -78,418.321 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2002 - Sep 2024 |
| Paraguay (USD mn) | -16,063.476 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2001 - Sep 2024 |
| Peru (USD mn) | -100,013.604 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1980 - Dec 2024 |
| Philippines (USD mn) | -74,249.007 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2012 - Sep 2024 |
| Poland (USD mn) | -287,177.000 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2004 - Sep 2024 |
| Portugal (USD mn) | -171,997.371 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1996 - Dec 2024 |
| Romania (USD mn) | -162,359.245 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1998 - Sep 2024 |
| Russia (USD mn) | 943,376.670 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2013 - Sep 2024 |
| Saudi Arabia (USD mn) | 765,219.433 2023 | yearly | 2007 - 2023 |
| Serbia (USD mn) | -57,042.768 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2008 - Sep 2024 |
| Singapore (USD mn) | 871,662.536 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2013 - Sep 2024 |
| Slovakia (USD mn) | -73,059.526 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Jun 2001 - Sep 2024 |
| Slovenia (USD mn) | 4,640.109 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2000 - Sep 2024 |
| South Africa (USD mn) | 112,572.209 Jun 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2012 - Jun 2024 |
| Spain (USD mn) | -855,403.266 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1992 - Sep 2024 |
| Sri Lanka (USD mn) | -51,921.770 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2013 - Sep 2024 |
| Sudan (USD mn) | -93,493.144 2021 | yearly | 2003 - 2021 |
| Sweden (USD mn) | 384,347.103 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Dec 2024 |
| Switzerland (USD mn) | 1,080,879.440 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1985 - Sep 2024 |
| Syria (USD mn) | 13,474.961 2010 | yearly | 2007 - 2010 |
| Taiwan (USD mn) | 1,735,302.000 2023 | yearly | 2000 - 2023 |
| Tajikistan (USD mn) | -3,668.062 Dec 2023 | quarterly | Mar 2010 - Dec 2023 |
| Thailand (USD mn) | 42,929.370 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2012 - Sep 2024 |
| Tunisia (USD mn) | -77,158.202 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Turkey (USD mn) | -294,725.000 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2006 - Dec 2024 |
| Ukraine (USD mn) | -15,180.000 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2000 - Sep 2024 |
| United Kingdom (USD mn) | -1,121,062.176 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1977 - Sep 2024 |
| United States (USD mn) | -23,602,594.000 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2006 - Sep 2024 |
| Uruguay (USD mn) | -14,807.877 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 2011 - Sep 2024 |
Accurate Macro & Micro Economic Data You Can Trust
Explore the most complete set of 6.6 million time series covering more than 200 economies, 20 industries and 18 macroeconomic sectors.
Learn more about what we doSpain Key Series
| Government and Public Finance | Last | Frequency | Range |
|---|---|---|---|
| Consolidated Fiscal Balance: % of GDP (%) | -3.2 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1995 - Sep 2024 |
| Consolidated Fiscal Balance (USD mn) | 10,239.818 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1995 - Sep 2024 |
| Tax Revenue (USD mn) | 383,092.403 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Tax Revenue: % of GDP (%) | 23.6 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| National Government Debt (USD mn) | 1,823,451.4 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1990 - Sep 2024 |
| Government Debt: % of GDP (%) | 104.3 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1995 - Sep 2024 |
| Forecast: Government Expenditure (EUR bn) | 851.685 2029 | yearly | 1980 - 2029 |
| Forecast: Government Net Debt (EUR bn) | 1,897.512 2029 | yearly | 1980 - 2029 |
| Forecast: Government Revenue (EUR bn) | 796.889 2029 | yearly | 1980 - 2029 |
| State Government Revenue: ytd (EUR mn) | 260,374.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| State Government Budget Balance: ytd (EUR mn) | -37,034.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| State Government Expenditure: ytd: Current (EUR mn) | 277,259.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| State Government Revenue: ytd: Current: Taxes on Production: Products Tax: VAT (EUR mn) | 83,975.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| State Government Expenditure: ytd: Capital (EUR mn) | 20,149.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| State Government Expenditure: ytd (EUR mn) | 297,408.000 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Nov 2024 |
| General Govt Debt: Securities excl Shares: Long Term (EUR mn) | 1,390,467.350 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1994 - Sep 2024 |
| General Govt Debt: Loans: Short Term (EUR mn) | 5,009.007 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1994 - Sep 2024 |
| General Govt Debt: Loans: Long Term (EUR mn) | 161,254.705 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1994 - Sep 2024 |
| General Govt Debt: Securities excl Shares: Short Term (EUR mn) | 74,031.097 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1994 - Sep 2024 |
| Public Debt: % of Nominal GDP (%) | 104.300 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1995 - Sep 2024 |
| General Govt Debt (EUR mn) | 1,636,116.077 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1994 - Sep 2024 |
| Foreign Trade | Last | Frequency | Range |
|---|---|---|---|
| Forecast: Exports of Goods Growth (%) | 3.265 2029 | yearly | 1980 - 2029 |
| Trade Balance (USD mn) | -4,081.6 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1975 - Dec 2024 |
| Total Exports (USD mn) | 33,201.7 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1975 - Dec 2024 |
| Total Exports Growth (%) | 3.0 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1976 - Dec 2024 |
| Aluminum: Exports (USD th) | 3,529,739.054 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Exports: Medicament (USD th) | 13,921,409.664 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Exports: Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Product (USD th) | 8,730,004.510 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Total Imports (USD mn) | 37,729.4 Nov 2024 | monthly | Dec 1974 - Nov 2024 |
| Total Imports Growth (%) | 1.3 Nov 2024 | monthly | Dec 1975 - Nov 2024 |
| Imports: Medicament (USD th) | 15,272,094.724 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Imports: Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Product (USD th) | 8,065,034.591 2023 | yearly | 1995 - 2023 |
| Total Exports to USA (USD mn) | 1,534.199 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Nov 2024 |
| Total Imports from USA (USD mn) | 2,588.938 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Nov 2024 |
| Total Exports to China (USD mn) | 746.772 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1970 - Nov 2024 |
| Total Imports from China (USD mn) | 4,294.706 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1970 - Nov 2024 |
| Exports (EUR th) | 29,738,374.000 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Consumer Goods: Food, Beverages and Tobacco (EUR th) | 5,000,488.647 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Chemicals (EUR th) | 3,797,953.591 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Materials for Transportation P... (EUR th) | 1,741,198.381 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Minerals (EUR th) | 2,430,715.641 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Consumer Goods: Others: Durable: Automobiles (EUR th) | 2,730,131.969 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Europe: France (EUR th) | 4,056,277.191 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Europe: Germany (EUR th) | 2,847,677.592 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Dec 2024 |
| Exports: Europe: Italy (EUR th) | 2,376,846.221 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Chemicals (EUR th) | 3,966,834.740 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Intermediate Goods: Energy Products (EUR th) | 4,554,691.699 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Electrical Material and Access... (EUR th) | 2,096,464.816 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Intermediate Goods: Industrial Products: Materials for Transportation P... (EUR th) | 1,562,873.171 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports (EUR th) | 33,859,828.630 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Intermediate Goods: Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing (EUR th) | 836,436.848 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1981 - Dec 2024 |
| Imports: Europe: Germany (EUR th) | 4,104,257.993 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Nov 2024 |
| Imports: Asia: China (EUR th) | 4,043,598.684 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1970 - Nov 2024 |
| Imports: Europe: France (EUR th) | 3,437,362.665 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Nov 2024 |
| Imports: Europe: Italy (EUR th) | 2,696,285.025 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1960 - Nov 2024 |
| Monetary | Last | Frequency | Range |
|---|---|---|---|
| Non Performing Loans Ratio (%) | 3.3 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Dec 2024 |
| Household Debt: % of GDP (%) | 48.9 Jun 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1989 - Jun 2024 |
| Non-Performing Loans (USD mn) | 40,739.747 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Dec 2024 |
| Money Supply M1 (USD mn) | 1,348,148.882 Jan 2025 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Jan 2025 |
| Money Supply M2 (USD mn) | 1,629,778.803 Jan 2025 | monthly | Jan 1962 - Jan 2025 |
| M2 Growth (%) | 5.2 Jan 2025 | monthly | Jan 1963 - Jan 2025 |
| Reserve Requirement Ratio (%) | 1.0 Feb 2025 | monthly | Jan 1999 - Feb 2025 |
| Foreign Exchange Reserves (USD mn) | 62,234.8 Feb 2025 | monthly | Jan 1987 - Feb 2025 |
| Foreign Exchange Reserves: % of GDP (%) | 3.837 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1995 - Dec 2024 |
| Foreign Exchange Reserves: Months of Import (NA) | 1.6 Nov 2024 | monthly | Jan 1987 - Nov 2024 |
| Gold Reserves (USD mn) | 25,866.364 Feb 2025 | monthly | Dec 1956 - Feb 2025 |
| Total Deposits (USD mn) | 1,435,281.122 Jan 2025 | monthly | Jan 2003 - Jan 2025 |
| Total Deposits Growth (%) | 5.3 Jan 2025 | monthly | Jan 2004 - Jan 2025 |
| Domestic Credit (USD mn) | 2,211,257.2 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 1999 - Dec 2024 |
| Domestic Credit Growth (%) | 0.2 Dec 2024 | monthly | Jan 2000 - Dec 2024 |
| Debt Service Ratio: Households (%) | 5.300 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Debt Service Ratio: Private Non-Financial Sector (%) | 12.500 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1999 - Sep 2024 |
| Credit to Households (USD bn) | 774.665 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1980 - Sep 2024 |
| Credit to Private Non-Financial Sector (USD bn) | 2,141.598 Sep 2024 | quarterly | Mar 1970 - Sep 2024 |
| Household Debt (USD mn) | 808,235.9 Jun 2024 | quarterly | Dec 1989 - Jun 2024 |
| Total Loans (USD mn) | 2,214,730.964 Jan 2025 | monthly | Dec 1989 - Jan 2025 |
| Total Loans Growth (%) | 2.63 Jan 2025 | monthly | Dec 1990 - Jan 2025 |
| Private Debt: % of Nominal GDP (%) | 71.73 Dec 2024 | quarterly | Mar 2003 - Dec 2024 |
| Money Supply: Spain Contribution: M3 (EUR mn) | 1,656,016.000 Jan 2025 | monthly | Sep 1997 - Jan 2025 |
| Money Supply: Spain Contribution: M1 (EUR mn) | 1,296,297.000 Jan 2025 | monthly | Sep 1997 - Jan 2025 |
| Money Supply: Spain Contribution: M2 (EUR mn) | 1,567,095.000 Jan 2025 | monthly | Sep 1997 - Jan 2025 |
| Reserve Assets (EUR th) | 104,900,349.000 Feb 2025 | monthly | Jan 1987 - Feb 2025 |
| Reserve Assets: Foreign Exchange (EUR th) | 59,829,637.000 Feb 2025 | monthly | Jan 1987 - Feb 2025 |
More Indicators for Spain
Request a demo of CEIC
CEIC’s economic databases cover over 200 global markets. Our Platform offers the most reliable macroeconomic data and advanced analytical tools.
Please note, product demos are not available for students. Please click here to find out more about the version of CEIC available for student users.